• Home/
• Chapters/
• Acute respiratory distress syndrome/
• Further reading

Further reading

Definition and diagnosis

• Ashbaugh DG, Bigelow DB, Petty TL, et al. Acute respiratory distress in adults. Lancet 1967; 2: 319–323.
• Bernard GR, Artigas A, Brigham KL, et al. The American–European Consensus Conference on ARDS. Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordination. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1994; 149: 818–824.
• Ranieri VM, Rubenfeld GD, Thompson BT, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin definition. JAMA 2012; 307: 2526–2533.

Pathogenesis

• Rocco PR, Zin WA. Pulmonary and extrapulmonary acute respiratory distress syndrome: Are they different? Curr Opin Crit Care 2005; 11: 10–17.

Incidence and outcome

• Brun-Buisson C, Minelli C, Bertolini G, et al. Epidemiology and outcome of acute lung injury in European intensive care units. Results from the ALIVE study. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30: 51–61.
• Esteban A, Anzueto A, Frutos F, et al. Characteristics and outcomes in adult patients receiving mechanical ventilation: a 28-day international study. JAMA 2002; 287: 345–355.
• Herridge MS, Cheung AM, Tansey CM, et al. One-year outcomes in survivors of the acuterespiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 683–693.
• Herridge MS, Tansey CM, Matte A, et al. Functional disability 5 years after acute respiratorydistress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 1293–1304.
• Pierrakos C, Vincent JL. The changing pattern of acute respiratory distress syndrome over time: a comparison of two periods. Eur Respir J 2012; 40: 589–595.
• Reynolds HN, McCunn M, Borg U, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: estimated incidence and mortality rate in a 5 million-person population base. Crit Care 1998; 2: 29–34.
• Rubenfeld GD, Caldwell E, Peabody E, et al. Incidence and outcomes of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 1685–1693.
• Wind J, Versteegt J, Twisk J, et al. Epidemiology of acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome in the Netherlands: a survey. Respir Med 2007; 101: 2091–2098.

Treatment options

• Abroug F, Ouanes-Besbes L, Dachraoui F, et al. An updated study-level meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials on proning in ARDS and acute lung injury. Crit Care 2011; 15: R6.
• Adhikari NK, Burns KE, Friedrich JO, et al. Effect of nitric oxide on oxygenation and mortality in acute lung injury: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 2007; 334: 779.
• ARDSNet. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 1301–1308.
• Peek GJ, Mugford M, Tiruvoipati R, et al. Efficacy and economic assessment of conventional ventilatory support versus extracorporeal membrane oxygenation for severe adult respiratory failure (CESAR): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2009; 374: 1351–1363.
• Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT, et al. Enteral omega-3 fatty acid, gamma-linolenic acid, and antioxidant supplementation in acute lung injury. JAMA 2011; 306: 1574–1581.
• Rice TW, Wheeler AP, Thompson BT, et al. Initial trophic vs full enteral feeding in patients with acute lung injury: The EDEN randomized trial. JAMA 2012; 307: 795–803.
• Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, et al. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 1368–1377.
• Spragg RG, Lewis JF, Walmrath HD, et al. Effect of recombinant surfactant protein C-based surfactant on the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 884–892.
• Wiedemann HP, Wheeler AP, Bernard GR, et al. Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 2006; 354: 2564–2575.

See the entire Acute respiratory distress syndrome Chapter

• Close
• Print
• Easy read

Chapters

• Editors' introduction
• Foreword from the World Health Organization
• Foreword from the European Commission
• Promoting respiratory health in Europe
• The burden of lung disease
  • Introduction: the global perspective
  • Key points
  • Respiratory deaths in Europe
  • Figure 1
  • Figure 2
  • The impact on health services
  • Figure 3
  • Figure 4
  • Figure 5
  • Figure 6
  • The “iceberg of disease”
  • Figure 7
  • Recent trends
  • Figure 8
  • Figure 9
  • Figure 10
  • Future projections
  • Terminology and data
  • Data sources
• The economic burden of lung disease
  • Background
  • Key points
  • Methods
  • The cost of respiratory disease
  • Figure 1
  • Discussion
  • Further reading
• Genetic susceptibility
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Figure 1
  • Figure 2
  • Monogenic diseases
  • Complex diseases
  • Figure 3
  • Complex traits
  • Conclusions and future prospects
  • Further reading
• Early-life events
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Abnormal antenatal lung growth
  • Low birthweight
  • Prematurity and BPD
  • Figure 1
  • Tobacco smoke exposure
  • Viral infections in infancy
  • Wheezy bronchitis
  • Conclusion
  • Further reading
• Diet and nutrition
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Diet as a risk factor
  • Nutritional status and interventions
  • Clinical recommendations
  • Further reading
• Outdoor environment
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Pollution: composition/sources
  • Pathophysiological effects of air pollutants
  • Respiratory health effects
  • Long-term consequences
  • Figure 1
  • Respiratory disease in adults and children
  • Lung cancer
  • Figure 2
  • The importance of susceptibility
  • Relevance and outlook
  • Further Reading
• Occupational risk factors
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Figure 1
  • Exposure history and assessment
  • Latency between exposure and disease
  • Figure 2
  • Maximum workplace concentrations
  • Exposures and their effects
  • Further reading
• Passive smoking
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Harmful effects of SHS on health
  • Figure 1
  • Estimates of burden of disease due to SHS
  • Measurement of SHS
  • Health benefits of smoke-free legislation
  • Protection from exposure to SHS
  • Further reading
• Tobacco smoking
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Epidemiology
  • Figure 1
  • Toxic effects of tobacco smoke
  • Disorders induced by tobacco smoking
  • Figure 2
  • Societal costs of smoking
  • Dependence on tobacco
  • Legislation and prevention of smoking
  • Figure 3
  • Pharmacotherapy for smoking cessation
  • Counselling for smoking cessation
  • Benefits of quitting smoking
  • Cost-effectiveness of smoking cessation
  • ERS guidelines on smoking cessation
  • Future developments
  • Conclusions
  • Further reading
• Indoor environment
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Indoor pollutants and health effects
  • Figure 1
  • Figure 2
  • Specific pollutants
  • Figure 3
  • Indoor air quality in schools
  • Figure 4
  • Interventions
  • Conclusion
  • Further reading
• Childhood asthma
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Epidemiology
  • Figure 1
  • Figure 2
  • Figure 3
  • Figure 4
  • Figure 5
  • Causes/pathogenesis
  • Clinical manifestations and consequences
  • Prevention
  • Management
  • Prognosis
  • Future developments
  • Research needs
  • Further reading
• Adult asthma
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Epidemiology
  • Figure 1
  • Causes/pathogenesis
  • Clinical manifestations
  • Figure 2
  • Figure 3
  • Prevention
  • Management
  • Prognosis
  • Future developments and research needs
  • Further reading
• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Epidemiology
  • Figure 1
  • Figure 2
  • Figure 3
  • Causes/pathogenesis
  • Clinical manifestations
  • Prevention
  • Management
  • Prognosis
  • Future developments
  • Research needs
  • Further reading
• Cystic fibrosis
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Epidemiology
  • Figure 1
  • Figure 2
  • Causes/pathogenesis
  • Clinical manifestations and consequences
  • Prevention
  • Management
  • Prognosis
  • Figure 3
  • Future developments
  • Research needs and unanswered questions
  • Further reading
• Bronchiectasis
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Epidemiology
  • Figure 1
  • Causes/pathogenesis
  • Figure 2
  • Clinical manifestations and consequences
  • Prevention
  • Management
  • Prognosis
  • Future developments
  • Research needs
  • Further reading
• Paediatric respiratory diseases
  • Introduction
  • Key Points
  • Figure 1
  • Acute bronchiolitis
  • Figure 2
  • Figure 3
  • Perinatal respiratory diseases and BPD
  • Figure 4
  • Figure 5
  • Severe community-acquired pneumonia in children
  • Figure 6
  • Tuberculosis in children
  • Figure 7
  • Immunisation
  • Figure 8
  • Congenital respiratory disorders
  • General remarks
  • Further reading
• Tuberculosis
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Epidemiology
  • Figure 1
  • Figure 2
  • Figure 3
  • Figure 4
  • Figure 5
  • Causes/pathogenesis
  • Clinical manifestations and consequences
  • Prevention and control
  • Management
  • Prognosis
  • Research needs
  • Future developments
  • Further reading
• Acute lower respiratory infections
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Figure 1
  • Influenza
  • Figure 2
  • Pneumonia
  • Figure 3
  • Figure 4
  • Figure 5a
  • Figure 5b
  • Figure 6
  • Prevention
  • Future developments
  • Further reading
• Lung cancer
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Epidemiology
  • Figure 1
  • Figure 2
  • Figure 3
  • Causes
  • Prevention
  • Management
  • Prognosis
  • Figure 4
  • Future developments
  • Research needs
  • Further reading
• Acute respiratory distress syndrome
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Definition and diagnosis
  • Pathogenesis
  • Incidence and outcome
  • Treatment options
  • Future developments
  • Further reading
• Pulmonary vascular disease
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Figure 1
  • Figure 2
  • Pulmonary embolism
  • Figure 3
  • Figure 4
  • Pulmonary hypertension
  • Further reading
• Interstitial lung diseases
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Epidemiology
  • Figure 1
  • Figure 2
  • Causes/pathogenesis
  • Clinical manifestations and consequences
  • Prevention
  • Management
  • Prognosis
  • Financial burden
  • Figure 3
  • Figure 4
  • Research needs
  • Further reading
• Sleep breathing disorders
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Epidemiology
  • The pathophysiology of OSAS
  • Figure 1
  • Clinical manifestations and consequences
  • Prevention
  • Management
  • Figure 2
  • Figure 3
  • Prognosis
  • Obesity hypoventilation syndrome
  • Future developments and research needs
  • Further reading
• Occupational lung diseases
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Acute inhalation injuries
  • Occupational infections
  • Asthma
  • COPD
  • Interstitial lung diseases
  • Figure 1
  • Types of ILD
  • Lung cancer
  • Pleural disease
  • Figure 2
  • Figure 3
  • Prevention
  • Conclusion
  • Further reading
• Rare and orphan lung diseases
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Specific diseases
  • Diagnosis and support
  • Therapy
  • Future developments
  • Further reading
• Immunisation against respiratory diseases
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Influenza
  • Figure 1
  • Pertussis
  • Figure 2
  • Streptococcus pneumoniae
  • Figure 3
  • Tuberculosis
  • Figure 4
  • Developments and research needs
  • Further reading
• Principles of respiratory investigation
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • History
  • Physical examination
  • Laboratory methods
  • Respiratory function tests
  • Figure 1
  • Imaging techniques
  • Figure 2
  • Figure 3
  • Invasive biopsy techniques
  • Figure 4
  • Further reading
• Principles of respiratory therapy
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Pharmacological therapy
  • Figure 1
  • Nonpharmacological therapy
  • Figure 2
  • Figure 3
  • Other forms of treatment
  • Further reading
• Pulmonary rehabilitation
  • Background
  • Key points
  • Definition
  • Rationale
  • Application
  • Outcome
  • Setting and content
  • What is needed?
  • Conclusion
  • Further reading
• Paediatric respiratory medicine
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Figure 1
  • Setting
  • Figure 2
  • Training
  • Standardisation of care: towards a common goal
  • Keeping up with developments
  • Conclusion
  • Further reading
• Respiratory intensive care
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • The role of respiratory medicine in intensive care
  • Figure 1
  • Future prospects
  • Figure 2
  • Further reading
• Thoracic surgery
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Standards of care
  • Figure 1
  • Figure 2
  • Figure 3
  • Changing roles
  • The future
  • Further reading
• Medical respiratory specialists
  • Introduction
  • Figure 1
  • Figure 2
  • Figure 3
  • Figure 4
  • Figure 5
  • Figure 6
• Allied respiratory professionals
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Respiratory technologists and clinical scientists
  • Figure 1
  • Figure 2
  • Respiratory physiotherapists
  • Respiratory nurses
  • Further reading
• Primary care practitioners
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Primary care practitioners
  • Primary care and chronic lung disease
  • A role for primary care practitioners
  • Conclusion
  • Further reading
• Specialist clinical training (HERMES)
  • Specialist training in respiratory medicine
  • Key points
  • Figure 1
  • Development strategy for educational standards
  • Figure 2
  • The HERMES projects: adult respiratory medicine
  • Figure 3
  • Figure 4
  • The other HERMES projects
  • Conclusion
  • Further reading
• ERS School and postgraduate education
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • The HERMES projects
  • The ERS School web platform
  • Figure 1
  • ERS School Courses
  • School publications
  • Educational research seminars
  • Skills-based, hands-on learning
  • Strategic developments in the School
  • Further reading
• Respiratory research
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Fields of research
  • Advances in respiratory biomedicine
  • Conclusion
  • Further reading
• Respiratory journals and publications
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Figure 1
  • General medical journals
  • Types of journal article
  • Peer review in respiratory journals
  • Assessing quality and status of respiratory journals
  • Publication ethics
  • Advances in publishing
  • Open access
  • Publications of the ERS
  • Conclusions
  • Further reading
• Patient organisations and the European Lung Foundation
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • The role of patient organisations
  • Figure 1
  • Pan-European patient organisations
  • Respiratory diseases
  • Figure 2
  • Challenges
  • The future
  • Further reading
• Recommendations and policy
  • Introduction
  • Key points
  • Approach
  • Policy context
  • Noncommunicable diseases
  • Tobacco
  • Air quality
  • Tuberculosis
  • Conclusion
  • Further reading